2. Materials and Methods
The study of Sanskrit dates back to the 18th century with Western scholars such as William Jones and Franz Bopp – who laid the foundation for Indo-European linguistics. In the 20th century, Indian scholars such as S. Radhakrishnan and A. B. Keith developed philosophical and literary approaches. Recent studies approach the issue through the lens of anthropology, linguistic sociology, and linguistic philosophy (e.g., Sheldon Pollock, Johannes Bronkhorst). However, most studies still focus on the later period of classical Sanskrit or on the content of the texts rather than on the process of writing and language formation itself. Therefore, the academic gap in examining the Sanskrit writing system throughout its history needs to be filled.
Regarding the formation and development of Hiragana, the works provide a solid foundation for understanding the development of the Japanese writing system from ancient times
| [1] | Frellesvig, B. (2010). A history of the Japanese language. Cambridge University Press.
https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511778322 |
| [2] | Miller, R. A. (1967). The Japanese Language. University of Chicago Press. |
| [3] | Martin, S. E. (1987). Reference Grammar of Japanese. Yale University Press. |
[1-3]
. Hiragana is the result of the localization of the man'yōgana system – that is, the phonetic use of Chinese characters to record Japanese, and then simplified into syllabic soft forms
. In his approach, the standardization of Hiragana in 1900 is considered a turning point in the modernization of the Japanese language, marking the transformation from a personal, non-standard writing system to an official language system. Hiragana, like Hangul in Korea and the female script Nüshu in China, are writing systems closely associated with women, in the context of their exclusion from mainstream language forms (i.e., Chinese characters)
| [4] | Endō, O. (2011). Women and Writing: Hiragana, Hangul, and Chinese Women's Script. Annual Report of the Center for Comparative Japanese Studies Education and Research. |
[4]
. According to the previous study, Hiragana is not only a tool of expression but also a “feminine semiotic space,” where women – within the limits of their power – create, maintain, and develop a unique language form for writing poetry, recording life, and protesting against patriarchal institutions
| [4] | Endō, O. (2011). Women and Writing: Hiragana, Hangul, and Chinese Women's Script. Annual Report of the Center for Comparative Japanese Studies Education and Research. |
[4]
. Furthermore, Hiragana, although similar in phonetic representation to Katakana and Latin, possesses a distinct expressive function due to its usage and perception within the speaking community
| [5] | Yoshida, T. (2012). Differences in phonetic properties between different Japanese character sets. (Collection of Essays on Japanese Linguistics) |
[5]
. Hiragana's association with Heian-era women's literature created a soft, lyrical, and intimate image – distinct from Katakana, which was commonly used in administrative, technical, or loanword texts. Current research has established a solid academic foundation in terms of the morphology and linguistic history of Hiragana. However, a comprehensive approach combining writing history and cultural studies that examines the development of Hiragana as a product of Japan's unique historical and cultural conditions, particularly in relation to the concept of "localization" and the process of breaking away from Chinese influence to shape national linguistic identity
| [1] | Frellesvig, B. (2010). A history of the Japanese language. Cambridge University Press.
https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511778322 |
| [6] | Kojima, E., Fukumoto, M. (2013). The History of Japanese Kana and Romanization: From the Late Edo Period to the Mid-Meiji Period. Nagasaki Junior College Research Bulletin, (32), 39-43. |
[1, 6]
, remains relatively limited.
To approach the issue comprehensively, this paper employs an interdisciplinary research method, combining three main approaches:
1) Cultural studies: Examining the development of Hiragana as a product of Japan's unique historical and cultural conditions, particularly in relation to the concept of "localization" and the process of breaking away from Chinese influence to shape national linguistic identity
| [1] | Frellesvig, B. (2010). A history of the Japanese language. Cambridge University Press.
https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511778322 |
| [6] | Kojima, E., Fukumoto, M. (2013). The History of Japanese Kana and Romanization: From the Late Edo Period to the Mid-Meiji Period. Nagasaki Junior College Research Bulletin, (32), 39-43. |
[1, 6]
.
2) Gender studies: Applying analytical frameworks on gender expression and power in language to clarify how Hiragana was "gendered" and then "neutralized" in a specific historical context
| [4] | Endō, O. (2011). Women and Writing: Hiragana, Hangul, and Chinese Women's Script. Annual Report of the Center for Comparative Japanese Studies Education and Research. |
| [5] | Yoshida, T. (2012). Differences in phonetic properties between different Japanese character sets. (Collection of Essays on Japanese Linguistics) |
[4, 5]
.
3) Historical Linguistics: Analyzing the morphological and functional transformation of Hiragana through historical periods, based on philological documents such as the Manyoshu (Collection of Ten Thousand Leaves), Genji Monogatari (The Tale of Genji), Makura no Sōshi (Records of the Entire Year), as well as official regulations from the Meiji era such as the 1900 Ministry of Education Decree
| [7] | Okada, K. (2021). The Meiji Era in the History of Hiragana. Hokkai Gakuen University Humanities Studies |
[7]
. The source materials for this essay are primarily based on the following three main groups of documents:
First, in-depth studies by Japanese and international scholars on the history of Japanese writing, especially the formation and development of the kana system from the Manyoshu period to when Hiragana became the common writing system. These documents provide a solid foundation for explaining the localization of written language in Japan, as well as the aesthetic, functional, and phonetic characteristics of Hiragana throughout history.
Secondly, works focusing on the relationship between writing and gender in ancient and medieval Japanese society include studies on the role of women in Heian literature, the distinction between "male" and "female" characters (otokode-onnade), and Hiragana's role as a tool for expressing emotions and soft resistance in the context of women's exclusion from the mainstream Chinese language. Articles from specialized journals and conferences on Japanese linguistics play a crucial role in establishing a gender perspective on the writing system.
Thirdly, documents on the Meiji Restoration, the history of nationalization, and semiotics in modern culture. These sources not only help clarify the process of standardizing Hiragana into the official educational alphabet but also provide a basis for analyzing how modern society continues to associate Hiragana with feminine perceptions through visuals (as in kawaii culture), media, and font design. Works are key sources of information in this group
| [1] | Frellesvig, B. (2010). A history of the Japanese language. Cambridge University Press.
https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511778322 |
| [4] | Endō, O. (2011). Women and Writing: Hiragana, Hangul, and Chinese Women's Script. Annual Report of the Center for Comparative Japanese Studies Education and Research. |
| [7] | Okada, K. (2021). The Meiji Era in the History of Hiragana. Hokkai Gakuen University Humanities Studies |
[1, 4, 7]
.
The combination of these methods aims to ensure a deep and multifaceted analysis, focusing not only on linguistic form but also placing Hiragana in its interactive relationship with the cultural and social structure of Japan.
3. Research Results and Discussion
3.1. Sanskrit and Hiragana as Tools and Symbols Associated with Social Practices and Power Structures in Ancient Times
The concept of "writing as a social practice" is based on the ideological model of writing that Brian Street presented in Literacy in Theory and Practice (1984), which views writing as a specific social practice, contextual, cultural, and power-driven, and inseparable from the community that uses it.
“The ideological model of writing offers a more culturally sensitive view of writing practices, which vary depending on the context. This model is concerned with the meaning that specific forms of writing convey to people in different circumstances, as well as the power relations in which they are embedded.”
| [8] | Street, B. V. (1984). Literacy in theory and practice. Cambridge University Press. |
[8]
.
In this model, writing does not exist in an ahistorical or non-cultural way, but is always intertwined with ideological practices, power structures, and specific social relationships. Street's "ideological model" indicates that writing is not simply a form of recording language, but a socio-political phenomenon, constructed, used, and maintained according to the values and goals of the community.
Language is a “lens of perception,” not only describing but also constituting the socio-cultural reality of human beings. This idea is also extensively developed in the structuralist school, particularly through the works
| [9] | Saussure, F. D. (2011). Course in general linguistics. Columbia University Press. |
| [10] | Strauss, C. L. (1963). Structural anthropology. Basic Books. |
[9, 10]
. From a structuralist perspective, language is a system comprising related symbolic elements, and their meaning can only be understood within the socio-cultural structural network
| [9] | Saussure, F. D. (2011). Course in general linguistics. Columbia University Press. |
[9]
. Therefore, language and writing become systematic cultural structures, reflecting how a community organizes knowledge, rituals, power, and collective identity.
Language, is not only a means of communication but also an institution of power – where social structures are affirmed, repeated, and maintained. In this context, gender expression in language (gendered language) is not limited to words or pronouns (e.g., "sir/madam," "you," "she/he") but also includes:
- Word usage: some words or expressions are associated with men (serious, rational, authoritative), while women's words are often perceived as soft, emotional, or "irrational".
- Speech structure: women are often compelled to use more "polite" and modest language (for example, in Japanese: "わたくし", "ですわ").
- Tone and writing style: In ancient society, female writers were often associated with lyricism, meticulousness, and personal experiences, while men were associated with epic poetry, political commentary, and public affairs
| [11] | Foucault, M. (2004). The Archeology of Knowledge. London: Tavistock. |
[11]
.
Studies have shown that these linguistic differences are not inherent, but rather reflect the structure of gender power in society. Robin Lakoff, in his work *Language and Woman's Place*, argues that women's language is constrained by norms that cause them to express themselves passively and in a controlled manner, and that this "feminization" of language reinforces gender inequality
.
Sanskrit is the primary language of the Vedic texts – the religious and philosophical foundation of Hinduism. This makes Sanskrit a sacred language, closely associated with rituals, sacrifices, and metaphysical systems of knowledge. According to Sheldon Pollock (2006), Sanskrit is not merely a means of expressing ideas but also a tool for shaping symbolic power in classical Indian society. In the fields of philosophy and science, Sanskrit is the language of orthodox philosophical schools. At the same time, classic works on medicine (e.g., Caraka Saṃhitā), mathematics (e.g., Āryabhaṭīya), astronomy, and grammar (such as Pāṇini's Aṣṭādhyāyī) are all written in Sanskrit, demonstrating the role of this language as a foundation of interdisciplinary knowledge. Sanskrit grammar, particularly in the systematized form of Pāṇini (4th century BCE), not only influenced the way Indian languages were analyzed but also served as a theoretical foundation for modern linguistics. In literary and artistic life, Sanskrit was the medium for producing masterpieces such as the Mahābhārata and Rāmāyaṇa epics, the dramatic poems of Kālidāsa, and thousands of lyrical, philosophical, and historical poems. These works are not only rich in literary merit but also profoundly reflect the social life, worldview, and philosophy of ancient India."Sanskrit is the aesthetic space of thought," where language not only carries content but also evokes a spiritual universe
. Furthermore, Sanskrit served as a cross-cultural symbol, spreading across regions such as Sri Lanka, Southeast Asia, Tibet, and Central Asia, creating a profound network of influence throughout the history of Buddhism and Hinduism. Sanskrit inscriptions found in Cambodia, Indonesia, and Nepal provide evidence that the language was once a tool for connecting cultures, rituals, and political power beyond the borders of the Indian subcontinent.
Meanwhile, with the need to express everyday speech and lyrical emotions in poetry and literature, Hiragana – with its soft, phonetic nature – became a new tool for those without access to "true names," especially women. Ogura points out that texts such as Ki no Tsurayuki's 土佐日記 (Tosa Nikki) or Murasaki Shikibu's 源氏物語 (Genji Monogatari) could not exist without Hiragana – because it is the writing system for narrative, self-expression, and emotion, not for official writing
| [14] | Ogura, S. (2015). Kana script styles of the 9th and 10th centuries—focusing on hiragana—. Research Report of the National Museum of Japanese History. |
[14]
. Although considered "false," Hiragana is an essential tool for the localization of the language, helping the Japanese: record spoken language (which is very different from Chinese), create independent literary genres (waka, diaries, essays), and shape their linguistic and cultural identity. In this process, the "false" characters gradually become "true"—that is, more representative of the Japanese language than any other writing system. Notably, Hiragana characters are associated with women and are called "女手" (onnade – "female characters"). This is not merely a gender assignment to the writing system, but also reflects gender norms within the linguistic space, as Hiragana becomes a "semi-official space" for women to express themselves. Hiragana is not just a writing tool, but a gender discourse, where women create their own distinct expressive space within a patriarchal cultural system
| [4] | Endō, O. (2011). Women and Writing: Hiragana, Hangul, and Chinese Women's Script. Annual Report of the Center for Comparative Japanese Studies Education and Research. |
[4]
.
3.2. Historical, Cultural, and Social Context of the Formation of SANSKRIT and Hiragana in Ancient Times
Around the second millennium BCE, Indo-European speaking groups from Central Asia migrated into the Indian subcontinent. These groups are often called the Aryans, and their migration marked the beginning of the Vedic period. Within this historical context, indigenous cultures and migratory elements blended, leading to the formation of the Vedic civilization. With their semi-nomadic, agricultural lifestyle and tribal social structure, the Aryans brought with them a polytheistic belief system and a tradition of poetry and ritual, which formed the basis for the creation of the Vedic Sanskrit script. Along with their gradual settlement in the Punjab region and the Ganges River basin, the Aryans established a stratified social order, thereby creating power structures in which the Vedic language played a central role in maintaining tradition and consolidating the position of the Brahmin class. This is the oldest period, associated with the Ṛgveda and other Vedic texts. Vedic society was organized into social groups (varnas), most notably the Brahmin class (brāhmaṇa) – those who possessed knowledge of rituals, religion, and language. This structure was both social and religious, with other classes such as Kshatriyas (warriors), Vaishyas (farmers and merchants), and Shudras (laborers). In this context, language was sanctified as a tool for transmitting ritual and mythological knowledge. The clear distinction between everyday speech and ritual speech laid the foundation for the emergence of a "higher," standardized form of language – Vedic Sanskrit, which was used exclusively in rituals and religious poetry. Rituals (yajña) were central to Vedic cultural life. Each ritual required precise execution, with chanting playing a crucial role in "activating" the presence of the deities. This demanded a language system that was not only accurate in content but also perfect in pronunciation and intonation – thus forming a strict oral tradition in which every word and syllable of the Vedic Sanskrit script was carefully preserved through generations. The Vedic language, therefore, was not merely a tool for communication, but a sacred entity, intrinsically linked to the belief that sound itself created metaphysical power. The Brahmins were not only ritual practitioners but also custodians and producers of knowledge, especially linguistic knowledge. They were the ones who memorized, taught, and transmitted the Vedic scriptures, thereby maintaining the standards of the Vedic Sanskrit script. The Vedic Sanskrit became a symbol of sacred power, a language reserved only for those "legitimized" within the varna system – and thus became a tool for reinforcing social stratification. The priestly class held a monopoly on this knowledge, and therefore, in order to interpret and transmit Vedic knowledge, they created six branches of study to support the understanding and practice of Vedas around 500 BCE – 200 CE, including: Śikṣā (phonetics), Vyākaraṇa (grammar), Nirukta (etymology), Chandas (rhetoric), Jyotisa (astronomy), and Kalpa (ritual studies). Of these, three were linguistic in nature. According to research, these branches of study helped preserve the system of intonation, phonetics, and emotions when practicing Vedas over a long period
| [15] | Nguyen, T. D. (1991). Ancient Indian linguistics - An outstanding scientific contribution. Language, 1991 (3), 56-62. |
[15]
. As a product of an era in which language, ritual, society, and divine authority were intimately intertwined, the formation of a complex, precise, and sacred language system like the Vedic Sanskrit script cannot be separated from historical and cultural factors. These factors not only shaped the language but also created a sacred linguistic institution, contributing to the overall direction of ancient Indian thought and society for centuries.
Meanwhile, the Heian period (794–1185) was one of the peak periods of ancient Japanese culture, characterized by political stability, the concentration of power in the aristocratic court in the capital Heian-kyō (Kyoto), and selective Sinicization. Under the Fujiwara dynasty, the aristocracy monopolized knowledge and politics, creating a closed, stratified society in which court culture (kuge bunka) was central to all expressive and aesthetic activities
| [16] | Nguyen, N. T. (2013). Textbook of Japanese History: Volume One - From ancient times to the end of the Edo Shogunate (1867). |
[16]
. In this context, although women did not participate in politics, they held a central position in cultural life – especially literature and correspondence – where language became the only means for them to assert their individuality in a patriarchal, closed society.
The first stage in the process of localizing the writing system was the emergence of Man'yōgana (万葉仮名) – a system that borrowed Chinese characters to represent the sounds of the Japanese language. Unlike the traditional Chinese writing system, Man'yōgana did not use Chinese characters in their original meaning but rather as phonetic symbols, that is, selecting Chinese characters with similar pronunciations to Japanese syllables to represent them, regardless of the original meaning of the character. This system was first widely documented in the collection of ancient poems Man'yōshū (万葉集, 8th century), and from there the name "Man'yōgana" was born
| [7] | Okada, K. (2021). The Meiji Era in the History of Hiragana. Hokkai Gakuen University Humanities Studies |
[7]
. However, a clear drawback of Man'yōgana is its cumbersome form: a single sound can be represented by many different characters, leading to the phenomenon of "一音多字" – one sound, many characters – which is confusing for learners and writers
| [14] | Ogura, S. (2015). Kana script styles of the 9th and 10th centuries—focusing on hiragana—. Research Report of the National Museum of Japanese History. |
[14]
. Furthermore, as a form of original Chinese characters, Man'yōgana is inconvenient for everyday handwriting with a brush, especially in the literary genres and personal diaries that were increasingly prevalent during the Heian period. To overcome the limitations of Man'yōgana, the Sōgana system (草仮名) began to develop as a transitional stage. This is a simplification and variation of Man'yōgana, developing in the style of cursive writing (草書体) – which is the fast and fluid writing style of Chinese characters
| [7] | Okada, K. (2021). The Meiji Era in the History of Hiragana. Hokkai Gakuen University Humanities Studies |
[7]
. The characters in Sōgana began to show a tendency towards curves, softness, and less sharp edges, facilitating shorthand writing with a brush pen. Although not yet standardized as an alphabet, Sōgana gradually approached the modern form of Hiragana, with each syllable corresponding to a single phonetic character instead of multiple Chinese characters as before. Some forms of Sōgana were preserved in ancient texts, calligraphic works of art, and signs until the 19th century, and are still encoded in Unicode today as part of the Japanese writing heritage
| [7] | Okada, K. (2021). The Meiji Era in the History of Hiragana. Hokkai Gakuen University Humanities Studies |
[7]
. It was from this foundation that, around the late 9th to early 10th centuries, Hiragana (平仮名) was officially established as a complete phonetic alphabet. This was the stage where the phonetic writing system reached its maximum level of simplification: each syllable was represented by a single symbol, a stable, unified, and easy-to-learn form. Initially, Hiragana was not highly regarded by male scholars of the time, as it contrasted with Chinese characters – the official means of recording in administrative, philosophical, and religious documents. However, Hiragana was widely used by aristocratic women to compose poetry, stories, and diaries – literary genres deeply personal and emotional, most notably Genji Monogatari, Makura no Sōshi, and Kagerō Nikki
| [4] | Endō, O. (2011). Women and Writing: Hiragana, Hangul, and Chinese Women's Script. Annual Report of the Center for Comparative Japanese Studies Education and Research. |
[4]
. Therefore, Hiragana was once called “女手” (onnade – female character), to distinguish it from “男手” (otokode), which were Chinese characters. However, it should be noted that the formation of Hiragana is not entirely the product of women, but rather the result of a transformation of the writing system initiated by monks, officials, and scholars; yet it is women who have applied, preserved, and developed this system in life and culture
| [4] | Endō, O. (2011). Women and Writing: Hiragana, Hangul, and Chinese Women's Script. Annual Report of the Center for Comparative Japanese Studies Education and Research. |
| [14] | Ogura, S. (2015). Kana script styles of the 9th and 10th centuries—focusing on hiragana—. Research Report of the National Museum of Japanese History. |
[4, 14]
.
The 10th and 11th centuries witnessed a flourishing of court literature, largely composed by aristocratic women, exemplified by Murasaki Shikibu's Genji Monogatari (源氏物語 – The Tale of Genji) and Sei Shōnagon's Makura no Sōshi (枕草子 – Pillow Notes). Both works are written in Hiragana – demonstrating that Hiragana is not merely a linguistic tool, but also a semiotic environment for structuring feminine texts. The content of these works often revolves around: personal experiences, emotions, and inner sensitivity; descriptions of court life – where women's power exists within hidden relationships; and an emphasis on aesthetics, sensation, and existential fragility (mono no aware). Hiragana – with its soft lines and evenly spaced syllables – became an aesthetic form of semiotics, fitting the feminine quality and profound inner expression pursued by Heian literature
. Within the limitations of a patriarchal education system, Heian women used Hiragana as an alternative means of constructing literature, recording their inner lives, and forming an aesthetic tradition deeply lyrical and expressive. Hiragana, therefore, is not merely a linguistic form, but also a unique cultural and gender-specific phenomenon, where feminine semiotics is constructed, maintained, and passed down through centuries.
As scholar Ogura Shigeji noted in his study on the history of kana, the development of Japanese society and the need for richer recording of emotions, nuances, and inner life put pressure on the current writing system. Kanji and Man'yōgana no longer met the communication requirements of the native language in daily life, especially in genres such as poetry, diaries, and prose – where linguistic flexibility was paramount
| [14] | Ogura, S. (2015). Kana script styles of the 9th and 10th centuries—focusing on hiragana—. Research Report of the National Museum of Japanese History. |
[14]
. In this context, kana, particularly Hiragana, emerged as a strategic turning point in localization. Furthermore, spoken language, being inherently immediate, intuitive, and personal, required a simple, direct recording system compatible with natural pronunciation. Social classes such as women, children, poets, or those not trained in the Sino-Vietnamese tradition – often not proficient in Chinese characters – found Hiragana to be an ideal tool: easy to learn, easy to write, and requiring no etymological knowledge. Therefore, Hiragana was once considered a democratic writing system, not only recording spoken language but also expanding access to written language for a wide range of people
| [4] | Endō, O. (2011). Women and Writing: Hiragana, Hangul, and Chinese Women's Script. Annual Report of the Center for Comparative Japanese Studies Education and Research. |
| [7] | Okada, K. (2021). The Meiji Era in the History of Hiragana. Hokkai Gakuen University Humanities Studies |
[4, 7]
. In other words, the emergence of Hiragana was a process of democratizing writing, blurring the lines between the "language of knowledge and power" (Kanji) and the "language of life and emotion" (native Japanese). This was not just a technical change, but a profound cultural and social shift, where a nation decided to create its own tool for self-expression instead of relying on a borrowed language system.
3.3. The Position of Sanskrit and Hiragana in the Writing Systems of Ancient India and Japan from Historico-cultural Perspective
Initially, Sanskrit did not have a fixed writing system, but it was recorded in writing during the Ashoka period (3rd century BCE), marking the use of scripts such as Brahmi and Kharosthi (3rd century BCE) under the Maurya dynasty (Aśoka) for inscriptions and written texts. Later, the Devanagari script gradually took shape and became the common writing system for classical Sanskrit. The abandonment of oral tradition and the shift to written form shows a major transformation in the way knowledge was organized and disseminated. Classical Sanskrit eliminated many archaic words of non-Indo-European origin or with folk connotations, instead focusing on a logical, philosophical, and religious vocabulary. This reflects both the "refinement" of the language and the establishment of a high cultural standard. The Pāṇini rules helped classical Sanskrit become a standard literary language, which changed little over time. Although the standardization process led to simplification of Sanskrit, it simultaneously retained many aspects of Vedic Sanskrit, expanding its flexibility to meet the evolving needs of language and literature. Despite its origins in the Brahmanical tradition, classical Sanskrit was widely adopted in Mahayana Buddhism and other schools. Early Buddhist scriptures were written in Pali and Prakrit (folk languages), but later Sanskrit was also used in Mahayana texts such as the Mahāyāna Sūtras and the Prajñāpāramitā Sutra. According to Professor Edgerton's research (1936), Buddhist texts were recorded and preserved in at least four Indic languages (Indian sub-languages of the Indo-European language family)
. Among them, there are three languages related to Sanskrit: Classical Sanskrit, Pali, and Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit. Furthermore, within the Tibetan Buddhist system, the Fourteenth Dalai Lama declared Sanskrit to be a revered language: “legjar lhai-ka” (the language of the gods), a means of conveying the “profound wisdom of Buddhist philosophy” to Tibet
. Sanskrit became the “language of reason”—a tool for systematizing knowledge, spreading beliefs, and critically examining philosophy. From treatises such as the Nyāyasūtra and Sāṃkhyakārikā to the Yogasūtra, Classical Sanskrit played a decisive role in the formation of the treasury of ancient Indian philosophy. Beginning around the 5th century, Sanskrit remained widely used in religious, scientific, legal, and literary texts. From this period onwards, Sanskrit tended to become ritualistic, associated with temple spaces and religious ceremonies, and gradually shifted to a symbolic academic language. Nevertheless, its influence continued to spread to areas such as Cambodia, Java, Bali, and Vietnam through ancient Buddhist-Brahman dynasties.
Meanwhile, as early as the Heian period (794–1185), Hiragana was widely used among aristocratic women – who were excluded from the formal Chinese language education reserved for men. While men were educated to read, write, and take examinations using Kanji, women primarily accessed writing through informal channels, based on family tradition or the court environment. Hiragana – with its simple phonetic structure, soft form, and ease of writing with a brush pen – became an ideal tool for them to create literature, write diaries, letters, and poetry
| [4] | Endō, O. (2011). Women and Writing: Hiragana, Hangul, and Chinese Women's Script. Annual Report of the Center for Comparative Japanese Studies Education and Research. |
[4]
. Representative works such as Murasaki Shikibu's Genji Monogatari or Sei Shōnagon's Makura no Sōshi not only affirm the literary talent of women but also demonstrate Hiragana as a symbol of private linguistic space and inner emotions. “Male writing” refers to Chinese characters – a complex ideographic writing system closely associated with the power structures of medieval Japanese society. Kanji were the writing tools used in law, administration, religion (especially Buddhism), and mainstream literature. Proficiency in Kanji was a prerequisite for a man to participate in the imperial examination system, becoming an official, scholar, or monk. Thus, the ability to write and use “male writing” was not only an expression of knowledge, but also a path to power and social status
| [1] | Frellesvig, B. (2010). A history of the Japanese language. Cambridge University Press.
https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511778322 |
| [7] | Okada, K. (2021). The Meiji Era in the History of Hiragana. Hokkai Gakuen University Humanities Studies |
[1, 7]
. It is important to emphasize that the contrast between “male writing” and “female writing” is not simply a difference in form or writing technique. It profoundly reflects the gender and power structure in Heian society – where writing became a symbolic boundary between two cultural spaces: public and private, formal and emotional, power and introspection. Kanji was the “language of public authority” – representing the male world: scholarship, administration, and ceremony. Conversely, Hiragana was the “language of personal life” – reflecting the female world with its subtlety, emotion, and privacy
| [4] | Endō, O. (2011). Women and Writing: Hiragana, Hangul, and Chinese Women's Script. Annual Report of the Center for Comparative Japanese Studies Education and Research. |
[4]
. At the aesthetic and symbolic level, this contrast is further concretized through the very shapes of the two writing systems. Kanji is often square and sharp, requiring complex knowledge to write and read; Hiragana is fluid and continuous, expressed through soft, rounded strokes, suitable for natural writing speed and lyrical emotion. Therefore, writing in Japanese society not only serves a linguistic function but also carries sociological significance regarding gender, as a space where gender is encoded through the form of written characters.
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